Posts Tagged ‘electronics’
Mic Pre Amp
How to Record Guitar at Home Using Indirect Recording
Indirect recording is what I would call the “old school†method of actually plugging into a real guitar amplifier, and using a microphone to record the sound. Minimally this method requires an amplifier, one or two microphones, mic-preamp and a converter. However, a whole heap of other units can be added, for example eq’s, mixers, compressors etc.
Before we get too technical, let’s first talk about the signal path. The signal path is the path that the audio takes from the microphone to get into the computer, and what happens along the way. For example – a simple signal path beginning at your microphone and ending at your computer workstation may include the following units along the way.
Below is a very basic signal chain showing how the signal travels from your guitar to your computer via various units.
Guitar > Amp > Mic > Mic Pre-Amp > EQ > Compressor > Converter > Computer
This illustration shows that once your guitar is amped, the sound will be picked up by a microphone, then sent to the mic pre-amp, which will boost the signal, and make it loud enough to actually use. From there the sound source could be send to some sort of eq unit, and a compressor to alter the levels. Finally the signal is sent to the convertor which will allow the music to reach your computer. Now, if I’ve lost you already, fear not!
Let’s take a quick look at what these different units do and how they work.
Microphone - When it comes to recording guitar at home, the microphone you choose can have a huge impact on the overall sound of your recording. A microphone is a device made to capture waves in air, water or hard material and translate them to an electrical signal. The most common method is via a thin membrane producing some proportional electrical signal.
Most microphones in use today for audio use electromagnetic generation (dynamic microphones) capacitance change (condenser microphones) or piezoelectric generation to produce the signal from mechanical vibration.
There are a lot of things to consider when it comes to the sound you get from your microphone, not only in terms of price and quality, but also where you actually place the mic in relation to your amplifier. Whilst the chances of getting a great recording are consistently better with a high quality microphone, price and quality do not always match.
Mic-Preamps – The signal that a microphone picks up is actually very low, and needs to be boosted for it to be used with your recording device. This is exactly what a mic-preamp does. It boosts the signal to a level that is useable for recording.
You may already have a mic preamp on your computer; however this is only designed for speech and is unfortunately unsuitable for any serious recording
Compressors – A compressor is a device that reduces (compresses) the dynamic range in a sound sources softest point to its loudest point to smooth the output, and can bring your audio material up to spec with professional recordings.
An instrument that goes from very quiet and very loud over the course of a song can be difficult to record and mix. Either the quiet parts get lost or the loud sections overload the recording.
Converters – In very basic terms the converter is the equipment that takes your analog audio from your compressor, eq unit, mic-preamp etc, and creates a digital representation, which is sent to, and is now useable with your computer.
Keep in mind that this is one of the most important units in your signal chain and it’s well worth spending a little more money to get a high quality converter.
Hopefully this has given you a little insight into the basics of recording, allowing you to see what equipment you will need and what each piece of kit does.
About the Author
Richard Marples has over 10 years experience of playing and recording guitar, and also hosts a website exaplaining how you can record at home. If you enjoyed this article on Home Recording then you can get more free tips at =>
www.uncleslinky.co.uk
Tools to record pro audio – microphone, pre-amp, monitors
PreSonus Tubepre Single-Channel Vacuum Tube Mic Pre $90.00
The PreSonus TubePre is a single channel preamp based on a 12AX7 vacuum tube circuit that provides a stable, transformer-free signal path. The TubePre can be used as the first stage of a live or studio system, as a mic preamp or direct box. The dual-servo gain stage design employs no capacitors providing ultra-low noise performance and wide dynamic control that allows the TubePre to boost the desi…
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TCC TC-720 Stereo Microphone/RIAA Phono Pre-Amp, Preamp (Preamplifier) $49.50
This preamp features stellar phono specs and performance, then adds on top of that the ability to also accept two microphones, either electret (condensor) or dynamic, to allow stereo live recording. These mike inputs are MUCH better than the ones found on most PC sound cards, because not only do they provide a superior signal-to-noise ratio, they work properly with dynamic mikes and musical instru…
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DBX 286A Microphone Preamp and Processor $199.00
The dbx 286A is a Mic Preamp with Five onboard processors, which can be used independently or in any combination.Why mic up vocals and instruments through a noisy, blurry mixer? The dbx 286A’s sonically pristine Mic Preamp has all the features you need, including wide-ranging input gain control, switchable 48V phantom power and an 80Hz high-pass filter.Use the 286A’s patented OverEasy® Compressor…
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MIC Surveillance System Amplified Microphone
Miniature Amplified Microphone…
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PylePro 16-channel Power Mixer $479.99
Update your audio equipment with PylePro 16-channel power mixerDJ equipment features 16 mono input channels with gold plated XLR balanced inputsUltra low noise discrete mic preamps with +48 v phantom power
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Focusrite ISA-828 8-Channel Mic Pre-amp $2999.99
The Focusrite ISA-828 eight-channel microphone pre-amplifier provides eight original ISA transformer-based pre amps in a single robust 2U chassis. Offers you the Focusrite signature sound at its lowest cost-per-channel to date.The eight ISA-series transformer-based microphone pre amps, with switchable impedance and direct instrument inputs, are complemented by eight line inputs, eight line outputs, and an optional eight-channel 192kHz ADC. The preamps feature exactly the same vintage microphone preamplifier design as the original ISA110 module from Focusrite's critically acclaimed Forte console (including the original Lundahl L1538 transformer and bespoke zobel network). Thanks to its convenient 25-pin D-Type connectors, the ISA828 integrates quickly and seamlessly with ProTools HD, as well as other popular hard disc recorders and mixing desks.The microphone input stage includes a variable impedance circuit, allowing the user to switch between four carefully selected input impedance settings. The original ISA 110 setting is supplemented by three further impedance settings to either perfectly match the pre amp with any microphone, thus maximizing level, or to use different settings creatively to shape the sound of the microphone being used.The four front panel instrument inputs also feature high and low impedance options to provide a comprehensive and accessible DI solution. Insert points are also featured on every channel, should the need arise to place extra processing between the pre amp and converter, Vintage design high pass filters are also provided on every channel, ideal for eliminating unwanted low frequencies without affecting the rest of the audio signal.The ISA828's optional eight-channel 192kHz ADC is the first audio ADC to utilize Texas Instruments Burr-Brown Pro Audio Amplifiers and Flagship Analog to Digital Converter PCM4220 chips. This cutting-edge technology is encompassed within Focusrite's own custom analogue circuitry to provide eight channels of unparalleled A/D conversion, delivering a dynamic range of 122dB and jitter at < 250 picoseconds.Finally, every channel features a six LED input meter, complete with precise meter trim. Metering has been designed to utilize the same reference points as Digidesign's HD system and provides clear and accurate input metering independent of the DAW.
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Drawmer 1969 Mercenary Edition Mic Pre Amp/Tube Compressor $2575
The 1969 Mercenary Edition, derived from a collaboration between two of the audio industry's most established names, Drawmer (UK) and Mercenary Audio (USA), Fletcher – Producer/Engineer, Mercenary Audio incorporates new tube circuits designed to add warmth to mic/line signals, and the instrument (DI) pre-amp has its own tube stage enabling classic overdrive effects when inserting guitar, bass and other instruments. Retaining the concept of twin mic pre-amps, the 1969 uses Burr-Brown'op amps for a silkier sound – and a phase reverse switch available in instrument, mic and line modes increases versatility. The 1969 employs true stereo link operation with channel one's threshold, attack and release controls becoming master to both channels. Stereo link also offers a BIG position which retains bass frequencies by rolling off the detection signal at 100 Hz minimizing undesirable pumping during compression. Output gain make-up can be independently controlled on each channel.
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Focusrite LIQUID4PRE 4-Channel Mic Pre-amp $1999.99
Focusrite's new LIQUID4PRE four-channel microphone preamplifier utilizes the Liquid Channel's proven Liquid technology. It's the marriage of a hugely flexible analog front-end with cutting-edge dynamic convolution DSP to deliver the sounds of 40 vintage and classic microphone preamplifiers across all four channels. Augmented by fully digital controls and remote software control over Ethernet, LIQUID4PRE provides the ultimate fluid multichannel front-end.99 unit setup memories provide total recall of every parameter across all four channels, delivering instant multiple user presets and a comprehensive backup of session settings. These memories can be managed via either the hardware, or LIQUID4PRE's dedicated control software, LIQUID4CONTROL. This intuitive software application places comprehensive pre-amp control inside the DAW. Communication between LIQUID4PRE and the DAW flows via Ethernet, with LIQUID4CONTROL providing comprehensive management of multiple LIQUID4PREs. A similar ProTools TDM/RTAS plug-in allows integrated remote control via ProTools hardware and software, including Icon and Venue systems, providing all the benefits of a ProTools TDM/RTAS plug-in, such as comprehensive automation and session integration.The unique Harmonics and Session Saver features from The Liquid Channel are also provided across all four LIQUID4PRE channels. The adjustable harmonic distortion circuit accounts for variance in the vintage originals, but can also be used creatively to vary the sound of each preamp. Session saver is a unique automatic gain control circuit that intelligently reduces the input level to help avoid critical overs. Each channel also features a classic Focusrite high-pass filter, phantom power, and phase reverse, available directly from the front fascia independently for every channel. These controls sit alongside the four large information display screens which, as well as providing in-depth information of settings, also display huge digital VU meters, providing accurate, responsive and easy-to-read metering. An additional feature essential for the LIVE sound arena is Operator Lock, which guarantees secure use in public arenas by locking the front panel controls to help avoid any unwanted alteration of preamps settings, including gain.AES and ADAT optical digital inputs and outputs are provided as standard to integrate with a variety of digital I/O setups. However, an optional EtherSound eight-channel card is also available, providing effective connectivity for large studios, post production installs, and live sound engineers using EtherSound. Multiple unit set ups are easily configured for remote control via LIQUID4CONTROL utilizing an Ethernet hub. With a third Slave ADAT input, audio from two LIQUID4PREs can be routed directly to a single optional EtherSound card, or at 48kHz, all eight channels can be routed to a single ADAT light-pipe output.Finally, the Focusrite site features its own dedicated online emulations l
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Daking Mic-Pre IV $2195
The Daking Mic-Pre IV offers four channels of high performance, Class A preamplifiers in a single rack space unit with outboard power supply. Configured for four microphone inputs or four line inputs from XLR/TRS Neutrik combo jacks on the back, plus four line inputs (+10 to -50) or 1/4" hi-z instrument inputs on the front, the Mic-Pre IV utilizes all discrete Class A circuitry with transformer-balanced inputs and outputs. The new Mic-Pre IV from Geoffrey Daking & Co. is the latest example of exemplary audio quality and craftsmanship in the tradition of the great console manufacturers such as Neve, Trident, and API.The latest addition to the company's range of professional recording studio products, the Daking Mic-Pre IV is a highly cost-effective solution for high-end preamps to be used in studio or live applications. Used standalone or in conjunction with a console, each input offers continuously variable gain control using Daking's signature aluminum knobs, a 20-segment LED level meter with +24db peak indicator, switchable mic/line or hi-z instrument, switchable +48V phantom power, switchable input phase and switchable 20dB pad.The Daking Mic-Pre IV is housed in a robust all stainless steel enclosure with an outboard DC power supply in a separate housing, offering not only durability but immunity from noise and RF interference. The attention to detail extends to the internal components, which include gold bifurcated contacts on all relay switching. The preamp is supplied by a universal power supply that can operate at any voltage for use worldwide.Notable users of Daking preamps and compressors: Includes Grammy winners Joe Chicarelli (Tori Amos, Counting Crows, U2) and Ted Perlman (Chicago, Bob Dylan, Elton John), Butch Vig (Nirvana, Smashing Pumpkins, Garbage) Steve Albini (Nirvana, PJ Harvey, Cheap Trick), and master mixers Chris and Tom Lord-Alge (everybody else from James Brown to the Rolling Stones).
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Drawmer 1960 Mic Pre/Tube Compressor $2250
Combining eight active tube stages and the low noise and reliability of solid state electronics, the Drawmer 1960 provides the ultimate direct interface between the sound source and the recording medium. The Drawmer 1960 is a two channel unit with each channel comprised of a completely natural sounding "soft knee" vacuum tube compressor and an extremely low noise microphone pre-amplifier with switchable 48 volt phantom power. A further auxiliary instrument pre-amp with EQ is also provided. This powerful combination of the classic valve circuit, offering unsurpassed tonality, and the low noise balanced microphone input with up to 60dB of gain has allowed engineers throughout the world to exploit the full potential of high performance condenser microphones. An example of this would be the direct to digital stereo recording of live classical music without the necessity of a mixing console.The Compressor: Because the compressor is a soft knee type, it requires few controls. Strictly speaking, a soft knee design does not have a rigidly defined threshold but the title 'Threshold' has been retained for the "amount of compression" control for the sake of familiarity. The Threshold range is continuously variable between infinity and -24dB, the theory being that signals below the threshold are essentially unprocessed and the signals exceeding this threshold are subjected to increasing amounts of gain reduction dependent on by how much they exceed the threshold._The attack and release times are switchable rather than being continuously variable and this method of operation falls into line with that of its all valve predecessors. Attack simply offers a-choice of slow, medium and fast whilst release has six settings. Positions one to four have fixed release times whilst positions five and six are two different programme dependent release time modes making the unit ideally suited to programme material with complex dynamics such as complete stereo mixes and vocals. Interestingly, the attack times are further modified by the choice of release setting so the range of choices are wider than it might first appear.Because compression is a form of controlled gain reduction, a stage of make-up amplification follows the compressor section giving a range of +20dB. The VU meters may be switched to monitor either the amount of gain reduction taking place or the output signal level and the two channels may be used either independently or as a stereo pair, depending on the setting of the stereo link switch. The side chain access points may be used to patch in equalisers to enable the compressor to act as a de-esser. As with other Drawmer products, the by-pass switch offers a choice of Normal. By-pass and Side Chain Listen modes so that if you have patched in any additional side chain processing, you can easily monitor what effect it is having. In addition to the balanced microphone and line inputs on the rear of the unit an auxiliary input on the
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Focusrite ISA One Classic Single Channel Mic Pre With DI $799
The ISA One microphone preamplifier delivers Focusrite's prestigious ISA transformer-based preamp in a rugged and portable chassis, at a groundbreaking price. ISA One features the classic vintage microphone preamplifier topology from the original ISA110 module, including the Lundahl L1538 transformer and bespoke zobel network. (The original 110 pre amp formed the cornerstone of each channel of Focusrite's legendary Forte console.)The pre-amp is complemented by a line input (XLR and TRS Jack) and an independent DI channel, complete with dedicated gain control, active or passive impedance switch, a TRS Jack output for routing to an amp and an independent XLR output on the rear. This flexible independent DI makes the ISA One ideal both for engineers wishing to blend a DI'd guitar signal with a mic'd guitar cabinet, and for demanding performers who require a single classic solution for both guitar and vocals.A variable impedance circuit has been added, allowing the user to switch between four carefully selected input impedance settings. In addition to the original ISA110 impedance, three further impedance settings allow perfect matching, or creative mismatching of the pre amp with any microphone. ISA One also features an insert point, should the need arise to place extra processing between the preamp or DI, and the optional converter. Phantom power, phase reverse and a 75Hz, 18dB/octave high-pass filter are also available from the angled front fascia.Independent input metering for both channels is provided in the form of a moving-coil VU meter with variable calibration to suit analog and digital recording media, alongside two six-LED peak meters; inputs can be metered either pre- or post-insert. The meter calibrations utilize all the same reference points as Digidesign's Pro Tools HD system, allowing effortless line-up.ISA One's headphone output features a dedicated volume control, which delivers an external stereo cue mix, (a simple click track, or a stereo mix feed from an interface or a live console,) fed to the headphones via two TRS jack inputs on the rear of the unit.An optional state-of-the-art stereo A/D converter is also available (the same card as used with the ISA430 Mk II), embodying cutting-edge conversion technology seated within Focusrite's custom analogue circuitry. This optional card can be retrofitted at any time and provides two channels of 24 bit/192kHz A-D conversion with a dynamic range of 119dB.The ISA microphone preamplifier was first introduced back in 1985. This transformer-based preamplifier formed the first half of the ISA110 mic-pre and EQ module on Focusrite's critically acclaimed Forte console. This console, and the later Studio console were hailed by many as the finest sounding consoles ever built.The ISA microphone preamplifier went on to form the cornerstone of all ISA and RED Focusrite products. The topology has never changed, except for the addition of a variable impedance circuit, a
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Daking Mic-Pre One Preamp $765
The Daking Mic Pre One is a free-standing single-channel preamplifier that uses the same circuitry found in Daking's 4-channel Mic-Pre IV, a favorite among top producers and engineers such as Butch Vig (Nirvana, Green Day, Smashing Pumpkins), David Pensado (Mary J Blige, Beyonce, Brian McKnight), and both Chris and Tom Lord-Alge (who haven't they mixed?). Built in the tradition of the great console manufacturers such as Neve and API, Daking preamps feature bulletproof construction and marvelous sound, reminiscent of the coveted classic pres. While sharing the gain structure and Class A, fully discrete transistor circuitry design of the popular Daking Mic Pre IV, the Mic Pre One adds a unique variable high-pass filter and comes in a freestanding 'DI-style' steel enclosure, ensuring both durability and immunity from noise. Mic Pre One features switchable phase, 20dB mic input pad and +48V phantom power, plus a selectable 1/4" front panel Hi-Z instrument input, all utilizing relays with gold bi-furcated contacts. Two large knurled aluminum knobs control the variable high-pass filter (0-200Hz) and continuously variable input gain between 25dB and 70dB.A 20-segment LED bargraph display provides accurate metering. Another LED signifies when power is supplied to the Mic-Pre One. Rear-panel connections include a transformer-isolated input for a microphone, plus line outputs on 1/4" jack and XLR.
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Joemeek SixQ Mic Pre with Digital Out $499.99
The Joemeek SixQ is a mic channel strip that packs a wealth of features into a single rack space studio channel. Now the SixQ mic pre includes a perfectly-matched free JM37DP Large Diaphragm microphone!Joemeek SixQ This single channel mic pre is based on a high-quality Burr-Brown IC, and has 3 bands of highly musical EQ, Joemeek's signature optical compressor, and a front-panel instrument DI making it a highly capable recording instrument. And, along with an analog output, the SixQ microphone preamp also lets you output digitally direct to your sound card or DAW. Digital Interface: The Joemeek Digital Audio Interface provides high quality digital audio outputs. The digital audio outputs are compatible with most digital recorders, as well as Digital Audio Workstations and mixers. S/PDIF format is available from the optical and RCA phono connectors. The Joemeek Digital Interface has highly stable onboard master clocks for low-jitter, hi-fi results. Internal sample rates of 44.1kHz, 48kHz, 88.2kHz or 96kHz are selected by means of rear panel switches. JM37-DP The JM37-DP is a high quality, large diaphragm condenser microphone with Cardioid and Omni patterns. By utilizing FET devices for both preamplifier and output stages, we created a microphone that's destined to be your "go-to" mic for a variety of recording purposes.The JM37-DP's capsule features classic "center-electrode" design, which provides a very smooth, extended frequency response. The design also employs dynamic feedback at the capacitor element, which further enhances the audio quality by eliminating distortion that may occur at high SPL.The large 1.035" dual diaphragms are manufactured from micro-fine Mylar with gold sputtering. The body is machined from solid brass, with connection to the outside world via a 3 Pin XLR connector. Power is supplied via Phantom Power from either your console or microphone preamplifier. An excellent choice for male and female lead vocals, the JM37-DP also excels at recording choir, orchestral and other acoustic instruments.
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Joemeek OneQ Mono EQ Compressor Mic Pre $729.99
The OneQ is the most full-featured, technologically advanced studio channel Joemeek has ever made! The Joemeek OneQ is a single channel combining Mic Pre (with Burr-Brown IC), four band EQ, the most flexible yet, Joemeek's "signature" optical compressor, a De-Esser, and an Enhancer. It's a master channel like no other. Housed in a 2u chassis, the elegantly sculpted faceplate is intelligently laid out, with clear, easy to read legends and a large analog VU meter. The OneQ also features 24-bit/96kHz A/D converters with word clock input and output.
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Avalon Vt 737sp Mono Mic Pre/Compressor/EQ $2249.99
The Avalon Vt 737sp Mono Mic Pre/Compressor/EQ is a combination tube preamp, opto-compressor and sweep equalizer, with output level and VU metering in 2 rackspaces. Balanced mic, front-panel instrument DI, and balanced line inputs. Class A preamp uses 2 cascaded, dual vacuum-tube triodes configured with minimum negative feedback. The Avalon Vt 737sp has a high-gain switch, high-pass filter, and hardwire relay bypass.
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Aphex 230 Master Voice Channel Tube Mic Pre $899
The Aphex 230 Master Voice Channel Tube Mic Pre is an indispensable broadcast station tool. Youll find them in the production room, or installed as a permanent on-air feed-through for pumping up voices. The Aphex 230 also makes a powerful and easy-to-use channel for home and project studios with its reflected-plate amplifier tube mic preamp design plus compression, gating, de-esser, parametric EQ, aural exciter, and a bottom booster.
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Emu Tracker Pre USB 2.0 Audio Interface $149.95
E-MU’s Tracker Pre USB 2.0 Audio Interface/Mobile Preamp is the ultimate portable USB audio interface for Mac and PC, offering pristine 24-bit/192kHz recording and playback, direct monitoring, and a host of professional features in a compact, USB bus-powered package. The Tracker Pre USB provides users with two Class-A ultra-low noise Mic/Line/Hi-Z preamplifiers that can be run independently or in stereo to record guitars, keyboards or microphones with optimal audio performance. CurrentMorph, a patent-pending circuit design, allows Tracker Pre to offer +48V phantom power and use premium high-power converters while using only USB bus power.
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Chameleon Labs 7602 MKII MIC Pre / EQ Mic and Transformer Upgrade $968
The Model 7602 MKII is the sequel to Chameleon Labs smash hit 7602 Microphone Preamplifier/Equalizer. The 7602 MKII new features include: selectable mic impedance, LED input metering, upgraded knob styles, and two different power options—all of this for the same price as the original unit. The 7602 MKII ships with an inline power transformer (all regulation is done inside the unit). The rackmountable CPS-1 can also still be used, but is no longer required.The Model 7602 MKII Microphone Preamplifier/Equalizer is based on a classic and revered design utilizing pure Class A circuitry. This unit is made with 100% discrete components, hand wound transformers and was fabricated to precisely match vintage counterparts manufactured in the early to mid 70 s. The Model 7602 MKII represents a dramatic breakthrough in delivering vintage audio performance at an affordable price. The 7602 MKII Microphone Preamp and EQ adds a factory installed Carnhill mic and output transformers to the 7602 unit. This upgrade adds increased performance and functionality to the 7602 MKII (sold separately). Equalizer Section (Selectable 3-band design with a flexible filter section):Filter – This is a high pass filter with 3db loss at 300Hz, 160Hz, 80Hz, and 50Hz with an 18dB cut per octave slope.Low Equalization – This section has a shelving slope with four frequency selections: 220Hz, 110Hz, 60Hz, and 35Hz. This equalizer affects the selected frequency and all others below it. The gain control provides 20dB of boost or cut.Mid Equalization – This section has a peaking characteristic with six frequency selections: 360Hz, 700Hz, 1.6kHz, 3.2kHz, 4.8kHz, and 7.2kHz. The gain control provides 20dB of boost or cut.High Equalization – This section has a shelving characteristic with five frequency selections: 16kHz, 12kHz, 7kHz, 4.9kHz and 3.4kHz. This section adjusts the selected frequency and all others above it. The gain control provides 20dB of boost or cut.Electronics:By employing classic circuit design, polystyrene capacitors, a gold contact ELMA gain selector and custom wound transformers, Chameleon Labs ensures that the Model 7602 MKII will exhibit classic audio sound.The Model 7602 MKII has a transformer-balanced input with a range between 20dB and 80dB of gain. The separate line input is transformer balanced and accepts input levels from -20 to +10dB.
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ART Voice Channel Tube Mic Preamp $429
The ART Voice Channel is the answer to your recording and computer audio interface needs. Built to provide the ideal all-in-one input solution for analog or digital recording, the ART VoiceChannel is a true second-generation discrete Class-A microphone preamp capable of providing clean quiet gain while maintaining incredible transparency. An integrated fully variable powerful dynamics processor subtly controls transients and noise of the most demanding sources while the VoiceChannel's semi-parametric EQ offers wide tunability. For added versatility the EQ can be patched before or after the dynamics processor while separate insertion jacks allow you quick quiet in-line connectivity to external signal processing gear immediately after the mic pre-amp, before the EQ and dynamics processor in the signal path. Another insert patch point exists just before the A/D converters. Choose between a wide range of outputs including balanced analog output, 44.1 KHz to 192 KHz AES/EBU, S/PDIF, ADAT and USB. Both analog and digital meters provide a detailed indication of audio levels.
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